By the second half of the 1980s, both the United States and the Soviet Union were facing broadening problems.

As we have seen, the US  was dealing with domestic dissension regarding Cold War strategy as well as with challenges from immigration and drugs.

The Soviet economic system had become noticeably less efficient, with the growth rate declining from 5 percent yearly in the early 1970s to 0.8 percent in 1979.

By the mid 1980s, Soviet weakness was also demonstrable in the area of technology, a field in which the military and economic aspects of power overlapped.

As compared with Western nations embracing the Information Revolution and energized by new technologies, the Soviets had only 50,000 personal computers — Americans had 30 million. What’s more — as LaFeber says — “they were generations behind Western machines, as were even the large mainframe computers used by the government.”

Meanwhile, both powers were overspending on defense with the US arms budget approaching $300 billion by 1986, and the Soviets spending nearly $250 billion.

While the US was stretched thin — more than $1 trillion in debt piled up during the Reagan years — the Soviet economy was disintegrating.

A program of perestroika , restructuring of the economy, was not achieving hoped for results, even though partnerships with Western corporations were now permitted and capitalism was penetrating deeply into the Soviet economic culture. Thus, it is not surprising that the Soviet Union’s appeal as a model for Third World political and economic development was disappearing.

Nevertheless, it was astonishing to see Gorbachev withdraw his support for “wars of liberation” declaring: “It is inadmissable and futile to encourage revolution from abroad.”

He angered Castro by repeating that same policy in Cuba, then warned Castro to “get his house in order” because the Soviets could no longer pump in the more than $10 million required each day to keep the Cuban economy afloat.

As further proof of his seriousness, Gorbachev withdrew his 115,000 troops from Afghanistan by early 1989.

The superpowers began to believe that the Cold War might, in fact, have ended. Still, residual effects were soon to have major impact.

On August 2, 1990, as the Cold War in the Third World was winding down, Saddam Hussein, the Cold War client of both superpowers, invaded the oil rich kingdom of Kuwait, arousing worldwide condemnation for his disregard for “democracy” and for his scorched earth policy. The action incurred a swift response from the Americans who — in addition to the above — believed that the price of oil and, therefore, control of the world’s economy was at stake.

As could be expected, Moscow’s reaction to the Iran Contra scandal was negative, intensifying the tension that had developed following the election of Ronald Reagan.

Reagan was a leader whose vision exploited America’s anti-Soviet feelings, the roots of which went back to the 1940s (if not the 1890s). Reagan couched his appeal in religious terms, arguing that the Soviet Union was “the focus of evil in the  modern world.” However, while he continued — and expanded — the military buildup begun by President Carter, it soon became clear that Reagan’s rhetoric did not determine his actions.

During his first term in office, Reagan lifted the grain embargo that Carter had imposed in reaction to the occupation of Afghanistan and sent high tech weapons to the Chinese. leading scholars like Gaddis to say: “This administration evidently loves commerce more than it loathes communism.”

Meanwhile, Reagan took up the cause of “freedom fighting” in the name of American self-defense. The US began to support “low intensity conflicts” (LICs)  whereby small, specially trained counterinsurgency forces would — over a long period of time — destroy their opponents.

The LICs were intended to undermine Communist governments in places like Nicaragua and Afghanistan.

This strategy was controversial, of course.

The Soviets launched a major political, diplomatic, and propaganda campaign, stressing a reactive policy toward the American response to Afghanistan and the possibility of American moves against Iran. Surprisingly, the administration itself was split.

US Secretary of Defense Casper Weinberger asserted that the US should

use military power only when certain conditions were met: an assurance of long-term public and congressional support, a guarantee that the commitment would be made ‘wholeheartedly’ and with full intention of ‘winning,’ and a clear definition of the objectives that were to be sought.

Obviously LICs could not meet these criteria.

Domestic dissension regarding Cold War strategy was not the only issue.

Long evident spillover effects associated with superpower activity in the Third World soon began to grow more serious in the United States itself, as an influx of immigrants (both legal and illegal) and drugs became pervasive, and as the globalization of the economy took on increased significance for American workers.

In addition to the several waves of Cuban immigrants who had sought asylum in the southern US, more than 500,000 Salvadorans had arrived illegally. These groups combined with those fleeing turmoil in Southeast Asia and Iran, and were soon joined by increasing numbers of Soviet Jews.

Emigration fluctuated according to US-Soviet relations and how badly Moscow wanted an arms deal and economic help. According to McCarthy and Ronfeldt

The cases of Cuba and Southeast Asian refugees provide striking examples of how global flows may have unanticipated long-term consequences and tend to create situations in which foreign policy decisions produce domestic ramifications. Both of these refugee flows originated as unanticipated results of foreign policy actions, and both created situations in which the United States was unwilling or unable to stop the flow once its domestic effect began to be felt.

WORLD CUP OF SOCCER GROUP H: THROUGH A COLD WAR LENS

Group H teams include Spain, Switzerland, Honduras, and Chile. Stats and team info are courtesy of ESPN.

Spain

Nickname: LA FURIA ROTA (The Red Fury)
Appearance: 13th
Record: W 22/ D 12/ L 15
Best Performance: Fourth Place in ’50
Group Stage Schedule:
June 16 vs. Switzerland – Win
June 21 vs. Honduras – Win
June 25 vs. Chile – 2 PM ET

Spain is playing its best soccer ever. LA FURIA ROJA are champions of Europe, reached Number One in world rankings for the first time, and went undefeated in qualifying. Led by star striker Fernando “El Nino” Torres, Spain is ready for anyone that steps into the ring, and hopes to make its 13th World Cup appearance historic.

General Francisco Franco emerged as leader and dictator of Spain in 1939. This meant that Spain remained the only fascist country in Europe after 1945.

Although isolated, economically and culturally, from its European neighbours, Spain’s anti-communist stance found support in the United States.

Even so, Spain was the only major Western European nation excluded from receiving postwar aid under the Marshall Plan. (Spain did not overtly participate in World War II. After the war, it pursued a policy of self-sufficiency, currency controls, and quotas, with little success.)

With the escalation of the Cold War, the United States reconsidered its position, and in 1951 embraced Spain as an ally, encouraged by Franco’s aggressive anti-communist policies.

Over the next decade, a considerable amount of American aid went to Spain, but less than its neighbors had received under the Marshall Plan.

Spain was kept out of the United Nations until 1955. By that time, the Cold War was in full swing.

In order to protect southern Europe, it became strategically important for the US to create a military presence on the Iberian peninsula, next to the Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar. By 1963, there were US air bases in Fascist Spain.

On 30 May 1982, NATO gained a new member when, following a referendum, the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance.

Switzerland

Nickname: SCHWEIZER NATI (The Swiss National Team)
Appearance: 9th
Record: W 8/ D 5/ L 13
Best Performance: Quarterfinals in ’34, ’38, ’54
Group Stage Schedule:
June 16 vs. Spain – Win
June 21 vs. Chile – Win
June 25 vs. Honduras – 2 PM ET

Switzerland gave up zero goals in the 2006 World Cup, but still couldn’t make it out of the second round. In 2010, Manager Ottmar “Der General” Hitzfeld has a team with many tools on the pitch, and the SCHWEIZER NATI will use them all as it attempts to reach the quarterfinals for the first time in over 50 years.

At the end of the World War II, Swiss politics and neutrality were internationally compromised because Switzerland had maintained relations with Nazi Germany until the end of the war.

The Soviet Union only reluctantly accorded diplomatic recognition to Switzerland, which had been a herald of anticommunism in the interwar period.

In a 1946 agreement, the Western Allies, especially the United States, compelled Switzerland to compensate the looted western European central banks, requiring the payment of some 250 million Swiss francs.

The Cold War enhanced the role of neutral Switzerland and offered the country a way out of the diplomatic isolation it had endured after World War II. The Cold War allowed Switzerland to again become a respectable member of the international community.

Neutrality enabled it to play a mediating role between the two antagonistic camps, but, as a capitalist democracy with a strong citizens’ army, it was a tacit member of the noncommunist world and one of its key defenders.

Economically, Switzerland integrated itself into the American-led Western postwar order, but it remained reluctant to enter supranational bodies.

For many decades, Switzerland did not join the United Nations, even though Geneva became host to the UN’s European headquarters and the country played an active role in many of the UN’s specialized agencies.

Switzerland also remained aloof in the face of European integration efforts, waiting until 1963 to join the Council of Europe. It still remains outside the European Union. Instead, Switzerland in 1960 helped form the European Free Trade Area, which did not strive for political union.

An interesting and complicated mixture of neutrality, isolationism, solidarity, anticommunism, and militarism became the common, often complacent ideology of most Swiss, be they bourgeois or socialist.

Following the Cold War, Switzerland joined the Bretton Woods institutions in 1992 and finally became a member of the United Nations in 2002.

Honduras

Nickname: LOS CATRACHOS
Appearance: 2th
Record: W 0/ D 2/ L 1
Best Performance: Group Stage in ’82
Group Stage Schedule:
June 16 vs. Chile – Loss
June 21 vs. Spain – Loss
June 25 vs. Switzerland – 2 PM ET

Honduras is enjoying its most exciting period of international play in decades. LOS CATRACHOS played brilliantly in qualifying, even if they needed a late goal from the USA to make it to South Africa. Star players Guevara, Pavon, and Palacios look forward to continued success as they lift the spirits of a nation.

In the 1980s, the United States saw Honduras as a strategic ally in Central America and military aid exceeded two hundred million dollars a year. The army expanded rapidly, and army roadblocks became a part of daily life.

Honduras served as a staging ground for American Cold War battles in Central America . In the neighboring countries of Nicaragua, El Salvador and Guatemala, civil conflicts were raging and the United States saw a communist threat.

Located at the center of this battleground, Honduras became deeply enmeshed in the conflicts of its neighbors. It also adopted a US – promoted policy of protecting national security by stamping out perceived insurgent or subversive threats within its own borders—a policy that led to the torture and disappearance of hundreds of civilians.

Some 15,000 Nicaraguan Contras operated from clandestine bases in Honduras, the best-known of which is El Aguacate. Financed, equipped and trained by the United States, the Contras crossed the border into Nicaragua to attack and try to overthrow the leftist Sandinista government.

The United States also built and staffed the Centro Regional Entrenamiento Militar (Regional Military Training Center), where Salvadoran and Guatemalan soldiers came for courses in counterinsurgency techniques for fighting the guerrilla movements in their countries.

Perhaps, more importantly, though, to soccer fans is the role Honduras played in the famous Soccer War.

The Soccer War or 100-hours War, was a four-day war fought by El Salvador and Honduras in 1969. It was caused by political conflicts between Hondurans and Salvadorans, namely issues concerning immigration from El Salvador to Honduras.

Existing tensions between the two countries coincided with inflamed rioting surrounding the second North American qualifying round for the 1970 FIFA World Cup.

On July 14, 1969, the Salvadoran army launched an attack against Honduras. The Organization of American States negotiated a cease-fire which took effect on 20 July, with the Salvadoran troops withdrawn in early August.

Eleven years later, on October 30, 1980, the two nations signed a peace treaty.

Chile

Nickname: LA ROJA (The Red One)
Appearance: 8th
Record: W 7/ D 6/ L 12
Best Performance: Third Place in ’62
Group Stage Schedule:
June 16 vs. Honduras – Win
June 21 vs. Switzerland – Win
June 25 vs. Spain – 2 PM ET

As the legend goes, Chile finished third in ’62 by eating cheese before playing the Swiss, eating spaghetti before playing the Italy, and drinking vodka before playing the USSR. In 2010, LA ROJA will try a new tactic: to advance POR LA RAZON O LA FUERZA (by reason or by force) behind Humberto Suazo and Manager Marcelo Bielsa.

Compared to its neighbors, Chile was known for its stability in Latin America —  at least until the 1960s.

By then the Cold War began to affect the mountainous nation, and Chile became a part of the Alliance for Progress.

During the 1960’s, Eduardo Frei served as president of Chile.  Frei was endorsed by the Johnson administration and he sought to pass radical reforms.  However, the more industrialized Chile became, the more Labor Unions asked for higher wages.  The Labor Unions were not satisfied with the wages they received, leading to higher prices and more inflation.

Chilean youth adopted a Leftist view and began to protest the government with labor unions, both leaning towards the Communist Party in Chile.

In October, 1970, the democratically elected Marxist government of Salvador Allende took power in Chile.

President Nixon claimed to respect the outcome. But the CIA had undertaken a series of undercover initiatives meant to favor Allende’s opponents during the election campaign.

When Allende won anyway, Nixon authorized the Agency “to prevent Allende from coming to power or to unseat him.”

Over the next three years, the CIA persisted in its efforts to destabilize Allende’s regime.

Finally, a military coup overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973. It left Allende dead — probably by suicide. A reliably anti-communist government came to power.

Direct CIA complicity was never established, but Nixon and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger welcomed the outcome and sought to cooperate with the new Chilean leader.

A military junta, led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, took over control of the country. The first years of the regime were marked by grave human rights violations.

Pinochet’s government imprisoned, tortured, and executed thousands of Allende supporters, some of them American citizens.

Chile, for many years a democracy, now had one of the most repressive dictatorships that Latin America had ever seen.

Also, after Pinochet obtained rule of the country, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua, guerrilla forces in Argentina or training camps in Cuba, Eastern Europe and Northern Africa.

WORLD CUP OF SOCCER GROUP G: THROUGH A COLD WAR LENS

Group G teams include Brazil, North Korea, Ivory Coast, and Portugal. Stats and team info are courtesy of ESPN.

Brazil

Nickname: CANARINHO (Little Canary)
Appearance: 19th
Record: W 64/ D 14/ L 14
Best Performance: Winners in ’58, ’62, ’70, ’94, ’02
Group Stage Schedule:
June 15 vs. North Korea – Win
June 20 vs. Ivory Coast – Win
June 25 vs. Portugal – 9:30 AM ET

In Brazil, winning is not enough. One must win beautifully, and THE CANARINHO won the World Cup five times since 1958. After each title, a star is added to the team’s crest. This year, Brazil is in the Group of Death, but with Kaka controlling the pitch another star could be added to the legacy forever.

Brazil played an intriguing role in the politics and diplomacy of the Cuban missile crisis and in US – Cuban relations during the Kennedy administration.

In the years after Fidel Castro took power, successive Brazilian governments tried secretly to mediate between Washington and Havana.

This effort climaxed during the Cuban Missile Crisis when President John F. Kennedy asked Brazil to transmit a secret message to Castro. Brazil was already promoting a Latin American denuclearization scheme at the United Nations as a possible means of resolving the crisis. Kennedy’s request gave her an opening to broker a formula for US – Cuban reconciliation that would heighten the prestige of her own “independent” policy in the Cold War. Ultimately, these attempts failed.

In April 1964, a coup in Brazil resulted in a military regime.

The new regime was intended to be transitory but it gradually became a full dictatorship. Repression against opponents, including urban guerrillas, was harsh, but not as brutal as in other Latin American countries. Due to extraordinary economic growth, known as an “economic miracle,” the regime reached its highest level of popularity in the years of repression.

By the 1970s the US and Brazil found themselves at odds on almost every international issue. This was difficult to understand because Brazil had been the “historic” ally of the US in Latin America.

Civilians fully returned to power in 1985.

North Korea

Nickname: CHOLLIMA (The Winged Horses)
Appearance: 2nd
Record: W 1/ D 1/ L 2
Best Performance: Quarterfinals in ’66
Group Stage Schedule:
June 15 vs. Brazil – Loss
June 21 vs. Portugal – Loss
June 25 vs. Ivory Coast – 9:30 AM ET

North Korea’s only previous World Cup appearance remains a classic. Their 1966 upset over Italy helped the CHOLLIMA advance to the quarterfinals, forever leaving their mark. With star midfield #10 Hong Yong-Jo contolling the flow of play in 2010, North Korea will be looking to recapture the magic of ’66 in South Africa.

Tomorrow — June 25, 2010 — marks the 60th anniversary of the outbreak of the Korean War. The Cold War on the Korean peninsula was discussed in the context of South Korea, competing in Group B. For that discussion click here.

Sixty years ago, North Korean troops crossed the 38th parallel into South Korea, provoking a 3 year conflict that culminated in an armistice in 1953.

Still, the Korean War has never really ended. There has been talk of replacing the current armistice with a permanent peace agreement, but little progress has been made.

The military tension between the two Koreas remains high, especially in light of allegations that North Korea sank the South Korean Navy ship, Cheonan, on March 26 of this year, killing 46 of 104 sailors aboard. A Seoul-led multinational team concluded in May, 2010, that the ship was torpedoed by a North Korean submarine, a clear violation of the armistice.

Moreover, it is also alleged that the North Korean government continues to develop nuclear weapons programs, also in defiance of the armistice.

Chances that both Koreas will engage in talks are becoming slim. North Korea is reluctant to discuss a peace treaty with South Korea, citing that country’s non-signature on the armistice. At the same time, South Korea is stalling because Pyongyang is refusing to live up to a denuclearization pledge that would result in diplomatic and economic incentives.

Meanwhile, in the absence of a peaceful reunification of the two countries, ceremonies and events are taking place to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the outbreak of the war. More than 21 nations participated in the war under the UN flag.

Ivory Coast

Nickname: LES ELEPHANTS (The Elephants)
Appearance: 2nd
Record: W 1/ D 0/ L 2
Best Performance: Group Stage in ’06
Group Stage Schedule:
June 15 vs. Portugal – Draw
June 20 vs. Brazil – 7 Loss
June 25 vs. North Korea – 9:30 AM ET

Ivory Coast’s second consecutive World Cup appearance will be a challenging one as LES ELEPHANTS are in the Group of Death once again. But that won’t stop the Toure brothers and Didier Drogba, arguably the best striker in the world, from carrying the confidence and experience from ’06 into South Africa.

From 1904 to 1958, Cote d’Ivoire was a constituent unit of the Federation of French West Africa. Until the period following World War II, governmental affairs in French West Africa were administered from Paris. All Africans in Cote d’Ivoire were officially French “subjects” without rights to citizenship or representation in Africa or in France.

In 1943, General Charles de Gaulle’s provisional government assumed control of all French West Africa. Far-reaching governmental reforms in 1946 included French citizenship for all African “subjects.” The right to organize politically was recognized, and various forms of forced labor were abolished.

Interestingly, the first use of the Cold War Hot Line occurred shortly after the USS Liberty left port in Abidjan, Ivory Coast.

Following the Cuban Missile Crisis in October, 1962, when the world was on the brink of nuclear war, the United States and the Soviet Union decided to establish a communications link between Moscow and Washington to provide prompt, direct communication between the two superpowers, reducing the chance of a war starting as a result of misinformation or delayed communication.

The Hot Line was first used for its original, intended purpose when war broke out in the Middle East in 1967.

The USS Liberty had been making a port call in the Ivory Coast as part of an overt intelligence gathering mission. At the request of the US National Security Agency, the ship set sail to pick up Arabic and Russian linguists and proceed to a point off Port Said, Egypt.

The  mission of the Liberty was overcome by events. On the evening of June 7, US officials realized that the Liberty was sailing into a hot combat zone. Through a breakdown in the US Military Worldwide Communications System, messages to stand off and not approach the coast were not received by the Liberty.

The Hot Line carried a total of 20 messages back and forth between the US and the Soviet Union. Three of the Hot Line messages specifically relate to the USS Liberty. Unfortunately, however,  the ship was torpedoed; 10 men were lost, 16 critically wounded, and 65 wounded.

Portugal

Nickname: A SELECCRO DAS QUINAS (The Team of the Shields)
Appearance: 5th
Record: W 11/ D 1/ L 7
Best Performance: Third Place in ’66
Group Stage Schedule:
June 15 vs. Ivory Coast – Draw
June 21 vs. North Korea – Win
June 25 vs. Brazil – 9:30 AM ET

Portugal didn’t lose a match in 2009, behind Manager Carlos Queiroz and the mesmerizing talents of Cristiano Ronaldo. With Ronaldo confusing defenders out wide, and Caravalho and Ferreira in support A SELECCRO DAS QUINAS will try to step over Brazil in the Group of Death and eclipse its best-ever-third-place finish.

Portugal was one of only five European countries to remain neutral in World War II.

From the 1940s to the 1960s, Portugal was a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

In April 1974 a bloodless left-wing military coup in Lisbon, known as the Carnation Revolution, led the way for a modern democracy as well as for the independence of Portugal’s last colonies in Africa.

A two year transitional period known as PREC (Processo Revolucionário Em Curso), or On-Going Revolutionary Process), was characterized by social turmoil and power disputes between left- and right-wing political forces.

These events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal’s African territories (mostly from Portuguese Angola and Mozambique), creating over a million destitute Portuguese refugees — the retornados.

The fall of the Portuguese Empire in Africa led to an unprecedented expansion of Soviet influence there. Revolutionary governments in Angola and Mozambique were armed and supported by the Soviet Union, and black Africa was assured that Moscow was ready to join the liberation struggle against the apartheid regime of South Africa.

In the Horn of Africa, the Soviets established what Dr. Henry Kissinger called ‘a new strategic bridgehead’ at the gateway to the Suez Canal.

WORLD CUP OF SOCCER GROUP F: THROUGH A COLD WAR LENS

Group F teams include Italy, Paraguay, New Zealand, and Slovakia. Stats and team info are courtesy of ESPN.

Italy

Nickname: GLI AZZURRI (The Blues)
Appearance: 17th
Record: W 44/ D 19/ L 14
Best Performance: Winners in ’34, ’38, ’82, ’06
Group Stage Schedule:
June 14 vs. Paraguay – Draw
June 20 vs. New Zealand – Draw
June 24 vs. Slovakia – 9:30 AM ET

Italy is back to defend its title against the world. No team has pulled off back-to-back victories since Brazil won its second World Cup title in 1962. With many returning players from the 2006 championship side, GLI AZZURRI will look to Pirlo, Buffon, and Cannavrro to repeat their own history.

In Italy, competing  forces in domestic politics dictated Cold War policy.

When World War II ended, it was assumed by many that Italy would fall under the Western “sphere of influence.”  However, Italy was complicated. Major factors included: the legacy of Fascist anti-communism; anti-Americanism; the influence of the Catholic Church; the impact of the anti-Fascist resistance; the legacy of Italy’s recent civil war (1943-1945); and the presence of a mass communist party.

Italy’s stance regarding the  shift in postwar Europe from anti-Fascism to anti-communism became an arena in the Cold War divide.

Italy’s stabilization and its Western orientation were not fully established until 1948-1949. Thus, the potential consequences of the country’s domestic divisions were of primary concern to both Washington and Moscow. Even after its inclusion in the Atlantic Pact, the nation was divided between communist and anti-communist factions.

The political conflict peaked during Italy’s 1948 election campaign.

The left-wing parties came out in opposition to the Marshall Plan. The moderate forces, supported by the Catholic Church, based their campaign on anti-communism and the perceived risk of Italy passing behind the Iron Curtain.

The United States was a major player, supporting the anti-communist forces through the promises of the Marshall Plan. Their position held sway with Italian public opinion.

In a major step toward stabilization, Italy joined NATO in April, 1949, confirming the country’s inclusion in the Western bloc.

Paraguay

Nickname: LA ALBIRROJA (The White and Red)
Appearance: 8th
Record: W 6/ D 7/ L 9
Best Performance: Round of 16 in ’86, ’98, ’02
Group Stage Schedule:
June 14 vs. Italy – Draw
June 20 vs. Slovakia – Win
June 24 vs. New Zealand – 9:30 AM ET

This is Paraguay’s fourth consecutive World Cup appearance. LA ALBIRROJA nearly advanced to the Quarterfinals in ’98 and ’02, but didn’t advance out of the Group Stage in ’06. In 2010, striker Nelson Valdez will carry the palm branch in one hand and the olive branch in the other as the team attempts to bring home victory and goodwill for Paraguay.

Alfredo Stroessner, Paraguayan military officer and dictator from 1954 to 1989,  benefited from the 1950s and 1960s Cold War ideology in the United States which favored authoritarian, anticommunist regimes.

Upon reaching Asunción, Paraguay’s capital and largest city, during his 1958 tour of Latin America, Vice President Richard M. Nixon praised Stroessner and Paraguay for opposing communism more strongly than any other nation in the world.

At that time, the main strategic concern of the United States was to avoid at all costs the emergence in Paraguay of a left-wing regime which would be ideally situated at the heart of the South American continent. Such a regime would provide a haven for radicals and a base for revolutionary activities around the hemisphere.

From 1947 until 1977, the United States supplied Paraguay with  about $750,000 worth of military hardware each year, also training more than 2,000 Paraguayan military officers in counterintelligence and counterinsurgency.

Paraguay regularly voted in favor of United States policies in the United Nations (UN) and the Organization of American States (OAS).

Relations faltered somewhat during the administration of President John F. Kennedy, as US officials began calling for democracy and land reform. Kennedy’s administration threatened to withhold Alliance for Progress funds — about 40 percent of Paraguay’s budget — unless Paraguay made progress.

When Paraguay supported the United States intervention in the Dominican Republic in 1965, the United States became friendlier to Stroessner.

Relations between Paraguay and the United States changed substantially after the election of President Jimmy Carter in 1976.  The congressional cut-off of military hardware deliveries in 1977 reflected increasing concern about the absence of democracy and the presence of human rights violations.

An economic downturn in the early 1980s caused discontent, which in turn led to more demands for reform. Many Paraguayans had to leave the country to look for work. In the early 1980s, some observers estimated that up to 60 percent of Paraguayans were living outside the country.

On February 3, 1989, Stroessner was overthrown in a military coup headed by General Andrés Rodríguez. As president, Rodríguez instituted political, legal, and economic reforms, and initiated a rapprochement with the international community.

The June 1992 constitution established a democratic system of government and dramatically improved protection of fundamental rights.

New Zealand

Nickname: THE ALL WHITES
Appearance: 2nd
Record: W 0/ D 0/ L 3
Best Performance: Group Stage in ’82
Group Stage Schedule:
June 15 vs. Slovakia – Draw
June 20 vs. Italy – Loss
June 24 vs. Paraguay – 9:30 AM ET

New Zealand made it to its second World Cup on the final day of qualifying. Captain Ryan Nelsen, Chris Killen, Mark Paston, and THE ALL WHITES hope to carry the momentum into South Africa, and they may need it with Paraguay, Slovakia, and Defending Champion Italy making up Group F.

New Zealand’s alignment and participation in the Cold War was determined by the decision of the 1940s Labor government to back the United States and Great Britain  in their disagreements with the Soviet Union. The decision was questioned, though not overturned, by the Left, with communists and others claiming that Labor had rejected both peace and socialism.

Thereafter, the story of New Zealand’s involvement in the war echoes that of many small states in the Western alliance, such as Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands. Like them, New Zealand remained aligned; like them, the alignment was qualified in a number of ways. The most persistent qualifications were these: a preference (especially in the Labor Party) for social and economic rather than military solutions to Cold War problems, for détente rather than hostility, for nuclear weapons test bans rather than testing; and for caution in the expenditure of either financial or human resources in support of Cold War operations.  National attitudes and concerns included a fear of Japan in the 1950s, and antipathy to nuclear weapons ‘too close to home’ in the 1970s and 1980s.

Regarded as a war, the Cold War was New Zealand’s most protracted ‘military’ engagement. However, open combat was the exception not the rule. New Zealand was involved in Cold War-related combat operations only between 1950 and 1953 (Korean War), 1949 and 1960 (Malayan Emergency) and 1965 and 1971 (Vietnam War).

New Zealand provided crews for the Berlin airlift of 1948-49, and pledged in advance to send forces to the Middle East in the event of open war with the Soviet Union.

New Zealand supported Western positions in forums such as the United Nations, while at the same time welcoming negotiated solutions, especially the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty.

The Communist victory in the Chinese civil war led New Zealand to accept commitments to assist in the defense of Hong Kong. It continued to recognize the defeated Nationalist regime, based on Taiwan, even after Britain had recognized the new Communist government in Beijing.

Under the auspices of the United Nations, New Zealand gave military support to anti-communist South Korea when the communist North invaded. It allied with the United States in ANZUS in 1951, thereby committing itself to American Cold War policy in Asia.

New Zealand joined the US effort in Vietnam.

In 1971, a mission was reopened in Moscow and diplomatic relations were established with China.

New Zealand supported United States opposition to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 but avoided a trade boycott.

In 1985 the fourth Labor government clashed with the United States over its ban on port visits by nuclear-powered or nuclear-armed ships. This distanced New Zealand from its Cold War allies and led the United States to suspend its ANZUS obligations to New Zealand. By then, the Cold War was drawing to a close.

Slovakia

Nickname: THE FIGHTING JONDAS
Appearance: 9th (1st as independent nation)
Record: W 11/ D 5/ L 14
Best Performance: Runner-Up in ’34, ’62 (as Czechoslovakia)
Group Stage Schedule:
June 15 vs. New Zealand – Draw
June 20 vs. Paraguay – Loss
June 24 vs. Italy – 9:30 AM ET

Slovakia qualified for its first World Cup after Poland suffered an on-goal in blizzard-like conditions. Led by striker Stanislav Sestak, THE FIGHTING JONDAS will hope for more than good luck as they attempt to step out of the Czech Republic’s shadow and write their own history in a tough Group  F that includes Defending Champion Italy.

During the Cold War, Slovakia was part of the nation of Czechoslovakia.

At the end of World War II, the Soviet army was in parts of Germany and Austria, in Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and in Poland. At the Yalta conference in February, 1945, Josef Stalin, representing the Soviet Union, had promised “free and unfettered” elections in Poland and in the other East European countries that it occupied.

The case of Czechoslovakia demonstrates most clearly how the Soviets went against Stalin’s wartime promise and imposed communism on an unwilling nation.

Since the war, Czechoslovakia had worked to achieve a non-aligned policy that best served its national interests.

When it came to foreign affairs the Czechs tended to ally themselves with the powerful (and geographically close) Soviet Union, but domestically the Czech government was restoring the democracy that had existed there in the time between the two world wars.

To hasten their economic recovery after World War II, the Czech government was in favor of accepting aid offered in the Marshall Plan.

But the Soviets did not intend to allow any state within their sphere of influence to become a democracy; this threatened the security offered by the buffer zone that the Soviets had created.

Stalin told the Czech leaders that they were not to accept the aid from the Marshall Plan. The nation watched its economy deteriorate while those of the western European states began to recover.

But economic stagnation was not all that was in store for the Czechs. After President Harry Truman announced the Truman Doctrine, Stalin perceived a challenge to his authority in Eastern Europe.

The communists carried out a coup in Prague in February of 1948. Though bloodless, the coup was nonetheless nasty. Leading politicians who advocated democracy were arrested and imprisoned, and the communists infiltrated the government. Shortly after the coup the Czech president, Edvard Benes, was ousted from power and replaced by the leader of the Czech communist party, Klement Gottwald. The last independent government in Eastern Europe had become communist.

In 1966 Czechoslovakia, following the lead of Romania, rejected the Soviet Union’s call for more military integration within the Warsaw Pact and sought greater input in planning and strategy for the Warsaw Pact’s non-Soviet members. These debates heated up in 1968 during the period of political liberalization known as the Prague Spring. Moscow felt challenged by these developments.

On August 20, 1968, Warsaw Pact forces–including troops from Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary, Poland, and the Soviet Union–invaded Czechoslovakia. Approximately 500,000 troops, mostly from the Soviet Union, poured across the borders in a blitzkrieg-like advance.

By dawn on August 21, 1968, Czechoslovakia was an occupied country.

It was not until October 16 that agreement was reached for the partial withdrawal of the Warsaw Pact armies. The Bulgarian, East German, Hungarian, and Polish troops were ordered to leave the country, but Soviet units were to remain in what was referred to as “temporary stationing.” In the agreement, Czechoslovakia retained responsibility for defense of its western borders, but Soviet troops were to be garrisoned in the interior of the country. As events transpired, however, the major Soviet headquarters and four of its five ground divisions were deployed in the Czech Socialist Republic, where they remained in mid-1987.

The separation of Slovakia from Czechoslovakia  is referred to as the ‘Velvet Divorce‘.  It occurred in 1993, and was executed in a democratic and largely uneventful way.

WORLD CUP OF SOCCER GROUP E: THROUGH A COLD WAR LENS

Group E teams include Netherlands, Denmark, Japan, and Cameroon. Stats and team info are courtesy of ESPN.

Netherlands

Nickname: THE FLYING DUTCHMEN
Appearance: 9th
Record: W 16/ D 10/ L 10
Best Performance: Runner-Up in ’74, ’78
Group Stage Schedule:
June 14 vs. Denmark – Win
June 19 vs. Japan – Win
June 24 vs. Cameroon – 2PM ET

In 1974, the Dutch introduced the world to “Total Football,” where no player is fixed in any one position. This style of play led them to championship game appearances in ’74 and ’78. But THE FLYING DUTCHMEN are still one of the best teams to never win the World Cup. A favorite in Group E, this may be their year to finally make history.

The Netherlands received $1.127 billion of Marshall Plan aid between 1948 and 1954. This represented the second highest per capita support in Europe – only Iceland received more.

The Dutch famine of 1944 abated with an influx of aid, but the general devastation of agriculture led to conditions of near starvation, exacerbated by the particularly harsh winter of 1946–1947 in northwestern Europe. The region’s economic structure was ruined, and millions were made homeless.

In 1949 the Netherlands joined Britain, France, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, and Portugal as a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), dedicated to fighting communism and Soviet aggression in the North Atlantic area.

The Netherlands was also active in decolonization. In 1962, the Netherlands transferred New Guinea to the United Nations. In 1975, Suriname, a former Dutch colony, became an independent republic. In 1986, Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles.

Russia and the United States, of course, competed for power and influence in the decolonized nations.

The Cold War was not central to life in the Netherlands, and the country was one of the less active participants in NATO.

Denmark

Nickname: OLSEN’S ELEVEN
Appearance: 4th
Record: W 7/ D 2/ L 4
Best Performance: Quarterfinals in ’98
Group Stage Schedule:
June 14 vs. Netherlands – Loss
June 19 vs. Cameroon – Win
June 24 vs. Japan – 2 PM ET

2010 marks Denmark’s fourth World Cup. Morten Olsen, a key member of the “Danish Dynamite” team from the ’80s, is back as manager. Everyone in OLSEN’S ELEVEN, led by Jon Dahl Tomasson, Nicklas “Barbie” Bendtner, and Daniel “The Tattoo Artist” Agger, has a role to play if they are going to ignite Group E.

Following World War II, Denmark ended its two-hundred year long policy of neutrality. Denmark has been a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) since its founding in 1949, and membership in NATO remains highly popular.

Occupying the vital exit from the Baltic, Denmark was in a key strategic position. With her assistance, the Soviet Baltic Fleet could be bottled up and rendered ineffective. This made her an obvious early target for WARPAC aggression in the event of war. Experiences during the Second World War made many Danes reluctant to occupy such an exposed position on NATO’s front line.

Denmark received Marshall Plan assistance in 1948. This allowed a big program of farm modernization to take place, and there was an increase in industrial activity. However, it was not until 1963 that the value of industrial and manufactured goods exceeded those of agricultural produce.

Starting in the 1960s, a collection of activist groups began to shoot up. Because categorizing their ideology was often difficult, some peace movements were viewed with suspicion in the East as well as in the West. The political extremist groups that accompanied the youth rebellions of the period were just as difficult to pin down.

Many joined groups that opposed the Soviet Union, yet went ahead and supported other forms of repression. Others believed that their political philosophy held all the answers, and that this gave them the right to force others into their way of thinking. Most, though, abandoned their rebelliousness as they found respectable jobs.

Some engaged in politically motivated violence, and others felt they best served their cause by spying on the enemy. Still, while the Eastern bloc’s attempts to win influence — and its intelligence activities — were extensive, they produced limited results.

Overall, Denmark was not a reserved ally, but became increasingly integrated in NATO over time, politically as well as militarily.

Japan

Nickname: SAMURAI BLUE
Appearance: 4th
Record: W 2/ D 2/ L 6
Best Performance: Round of 16 in ’02
Group Stage Schedule:
June 14 vs. Cameroon – Win
June 19 vs. Netherlands – Loss
June 24 vs. Denmark – 2 PM ET

Japan was the first team to qualify for South Africa, but it wasn’t easy. Manager Okada has been under media scrutiny and the offense has struggled. But a strong midfield  and the experience of four consecutive  appearances (including a Round of 16 finish in ’02 may be all SAMURAI BLUE need to advance through Group E.

After World War II ended, Japan was devastated. All the large cities (with the exception of Kyoto), the industries, and the transportation networks were severely damaged. Drastic food shortages continued for several years.

The occupation of Japan by the Allied Powers — chiefly the United States — started in August 1945 and ended in April 1952. General MacArthur was the first Supreme Commander.

What remained of Japan’s war machine was destroyed, and war crime trials were held.

A new constitution went into effect in 1947.  The emperor lost all political and military power. He was left with only a symbolic position. Japan was not permitted to maintain an army.

This situation began to change with the emergence of the Cold War.

Japan was given central status in US-Asia strategy, and peace terms changed from punitive to generous. US strategic thinking focused on securing Japan within the Western bloc. This meant assuring a long-term US military presence in Japan, particularly in Okinawa.

In January 1950, after communist regimes were established in North Korea and mainland China, the so-called Acheson Line was established.  Japan and the Philippines were included in the US defense area of the western Pacific. Taiwan and Korea were left outside, suggesting that the loss of these areas was considered acceptable.

In June 1950, war broke out in Korea, and US policy toward Korea and China hardened.  The US soon placed an  on China and met it on the battlefield in Korea. With war underway, the “Containment Line” was fixed at the 38th parallel in Korea, and in the Taiwan Strait.

When the Korean PeaceTtreaty went into effect in 1952, Japan’s occupation ended.  Tha tcountry’s Self Defense Force was established in 1954. The US-Japan Security Treaty was renewed in 1960.

Japan normalized its relationship with the Soviet Union in 1956, and with China in 1972.

Recently, secret Cold War era pacts between Japan and the US have come to light. These allowed nuclear armed warships to enter Japanese ports in violation of Tokyo’s postwar principles. The pacts are quite controversial because there is a strong aversion to nuclear weapons in Japan, the only country to suffer atomic bombings at the end of World War II.

During the Korean War, Tokyo and Washington also had secret agreements allowing the US to use military bases in Japan. The bases could be used without prior consent in case of emergency on the Korean Peninsula.

Under a security alliance with the US, some 47,000 American troops remain stationed in Japan, and the US protects the country under its nuclear umbrella.

Cameroon

Nickname: LES LIONS INDOMPTABLES (The Indomitable Lions)
Appearance: 6th
Record: W 4/ D 7/ L 6
Best Performance: Quarterfinals in ’90
Group Stage Schedule:
June 14 vs. Japan – Loss
June 19 vs. Denmark – Loss
June 24 vs. Netherlands – 2PM ET

Cameroon’s 1990 upset over Argentina, flashy style of play and Roger Milla celebrations turned THE INDOMITABLE LIONS into everyone’s second favorite team. This will be the sixth World Cup for Cameroon. They are looking to striker Samuel Eto’o to bring back the flash from the past.

Cameroon’s Cold War experience begins with the defeat of Germany in World War I. In 1919, Kamerun became a League of Nations mandate territory and was split into French Camerouns and British Cameroons.

The new French colony’s economy was integrated that of France^. The British administered their territory from neighboring Nigeria.

The League of Nations mandates were converted into United Nations Trusteeships in 1946, and the question of independence became a pressing issue in French Cameroun.

France outlawed the most radical political party, the Union des Populations du Cameroun (UPC), on 13 July 1955. This prompted a long guerrilla war and the assassination of the party’s leader.

In British Cameroons, the question was whether to reunify with French Cameroun or join Nigeria.

On January 1, 1960, French Cameroun gained independence from France under President Ahmadou Ahidjo . On  October 1, 1961, the formerly British Southern Cameroons united with French Cameroun to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. Ahidjo used the ongoing war with the UPC to concentrate power in the presidency, continuing with this even after the suppression of the UPC in 1971.

Ahidjo’s political party, the Cameroon National Union (CNU), became the sole legal political party on September 1, 1966.

In 1972, the federal system of government was abolished in favor of a United Republic of Cameroon, headed from Yaoundé.

Ahidjo pursued an economic policy of planned liberalism, prioritizing cash crops and petroleum exploitation. The government used oil money to create a national cash reserve, pay farmers, and finance major development projects; however, many initiatives failed when Ahidjo appointed unqualified allies to direct them.

Ahidjo stepped down on November 4, 1982 and transferring power to his constitutional successor, Biya.

However, he remained in control of the CNU and tried to run the country from behind the scenes until Biya and his allies pressured him into resigning. Biya began his administration by moving toward a more democratic government, but a failed coup d’état nudged him toward the leadership style of his predecessor.

An economic crisis took effect in the mid-1980s as a result of international economic conditions, drought, falling petroleum prices, and years of corruption, mismanagement, and cronyism.

Cameroon turned to foreign aid, cut government spending, and privatized industries. With the reintroduction of multi-party politics in December 1990, the former British Cameroons pressure groups called for greater autonomy.

WORLD CUP OF SOCCER GROUP D: THROUGH A COLD WAR LENS

The World Cup Soccer Group D teams include Germany, Australia, Serbia, and Ghana. Stats and team info are courtesy of ESPN.

Germany

Nickname: DIE MANNSCHAFT (The Term)
Appearance: 17th
Record: W 55/ D 19/ L 18
Best Performance: Winners in ’54, ’74, ’90
Group Stage Schedule:
June 13 vs. Australia – Win
June 18 vs. Serbia – Loss
June 23 vs. Ghana – 2 PM ET

With three World Cup titles, four Runner-Up, and three Third Place finishes, Germany is a winning machine. Some of the best players in history have worn the Germany crest on their chest. In South Africa, the German team will strive to continue this winning tradition and add to the long list of legendary DIE MANNSCHAFT terms.

The European Recovery Plan or Marshall Plan, announced in June, 1947, committed the US to the reconstruction of Europe. Confronting Germany’s risk of hunger, poverty, and economic despair was certainly central. The fact that Germany was divided was inconsequential because the plan, at that time, did not distinguish between areas under Soviet Control and other areas.

Stalin responded to the Marshall Plan by tightening his grip. He would not allow the USSR or its satellites to engage in the plan. He fell into a trap that enabled the US to seize both the geopolitical and the moral initiative in the emerging Cold War. So far as Germany was concerned, this meant a blockade of Berlin.

Stalin’s rationale is unclear. He may have hoped to force the Americans, British,  and French out of their respective sectors of the divided city. But, whatever his purpose, Stalin’s blockade backfired. The western allies improvised an airlift for Berlin, an action that earned them the gratitude of the Berliners, the respect of most Germans, and a global public relations triumph.

By the time Stalin lifted the Berlin blockade in May, 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty had been signed and the Federal Republic of Germany had been proclaimed in Bonn. Stalin’s strategy for gaining control of postwar Europe lay in ruins.

Still, the temporary arrangements agreed to at the end of World War II were now frozen in place.  Berlin was divided into American, British, French, and Soviet sectors. The Allied sectors were positioned more than 100 miles inside the East German state Stalin had created in 1949,  and were surrounded by several hundred thousand Soviet troops.

Situated in the  middle of communist East Germany, the western-occupied parts of Berlin reflected the virtues of capitalism and democracy. Nevertheless,  West Berlin, led a precarious existence. Nothing prevented the Russians — or even the East Germans — from cutting off land access to the city as Stalin had done years earlier.

Soviet-occupied East Berlin was also vulnerable. By 1961, some 2.7 million East Germans had fled through the open border to West Berlin and then on to West Germany. The overall population of the German Democratic Republic had declined, from 19 million to 17 million.

The Berlin Wall was designed to end this out-migration. It went up on the might of August 12-13, 1961, and was first a barbed wire barrier, later a concrete block wall some 12 feet high and almost 100 miles long. The wall was protected by look-out towers, minefields, police dogs, and guards with orders to shoot to kill anyone who tried to cross it.

On November 9, 1989, after several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government announced that all GDR citizens could visit West Germany and West Berlin.

Crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere.

Over the next few weeks, souvenir hunters and the general public chipped away parts of the wall; the governments later used industrial equipment to remove most of the rest.

The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 signaled the end of the Cold War and paved the way for German reunification which was formally concluded on October 3, 1990. The breakdown of the Soviet Union soon followed.

Australia

Nickname: THE SOCCEROOS
Appearance: 3rd
Record: W 1/ D 2/ L 4
Best Performance: Round of 16 in ’06
Group Stage Schedule:
June 13 vs. Germany – Loss
June 19 vs. Ghana – Draw
June 23 vs. Serbia

Australia advanced to the Round of 16 in 2006 in The World Cup Soccer with help from revered manager Guus Hiddink. Guus has moved on, but most of the 2006 SOCCEROOS are back. Led by midfielder Tim Cahill, and supported by the devoted  green and gold army, Australia will be looking to keep the fight alive in South Africa.

Despite its rather out-of-the-way geographical location, Australia was an active participant in Cold War activities and actions.

Australian forces were sent to Malaya in June,1950, to fight Communist insurgency in what was called “the Malayan Emergency.”

The nation conducted a series of atomic weapons tests at the request of the British Government between 1952 and 1956. Hundreds of minor trials, mostly involving components of nuclear weapons, also took place in South Australia 1953 and 1963.

Australia provided assistance to the US effort in South Vietnam, initially sending instructors who were not permitted to accompany the South Vietnamese into combat. In 1965, Australia’s commitment to the war was stepped up to include combat troops.

After two Indonesian raids designed to destabilize the newly independent nation of Malaysia, the Australian government deployed a battalion in Borneo. Indonesia and Malaysia signed a peace treaty in 1966.

But perhaps most memorably, Australia was the central player in the notorious Petrov Affair.

Espionage was an important part of the Cold War conflict. The Soviet intelligence agency (KGB and its predecessors) was successful in penetrating some sensitive areas of the US and other Western governments. This was usually done with the cooperation of citizens in Western countries or by Soviet diplomats. (For more on the Red Scare in the US click here.)

The Petrovs arrived in Australia in 1951. Under the cover of being Russian diplomats, both were Soviet spies.

Petrov’s intelligence role in Australia included decoding intelligence instructions from Moscow, establishing an illegal network of Australian spies, organizing the surveillance of Soviet citizens, and undermining anti-Soviet activities by infiltrating Russian emigre and Soviet refugee groups.

Petrov failed to develop the spy network in Australia, was associated with the deposed Russian security chief, Beria, and was the subject of several unfavorable evaluations. As a result he would not have expected a happy return to Russia and he came to see defection as his only option.

After much torturous soul searching Petrov finally chose to defect on 3 April 1954. Even his wife, Evdokia, was unaware of her husband’s decision.

The affair grew more dramatic when — in the heat of an election year — Australia’s Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, told the House of Representatives that Petrov had brought documents with him concerning wide-ranging Soviet espionage in Australia.

In truth, the documents were found to contain little more than the kind of political gossip that could be compiled by any journalist. While there had been some Soviet espionage in Australia, there was no major Soviet spy ring.

Serbia

Nickname: BELI ORLOVI (The White Eagles)
Appearance: 11th (1st as independent nation: 9 as Yugoslavia, 1 as Serbia and Montenegro)
Record: W 16/ D 8/ L 16
Best Performance: Fourth Place in ’30, ’62 (as Yugoslavia)
Group Stage Schedule:
June 13 vs. Ghana – Loss
June 18 vs. Germany – Win
June 23 vs. Australia

This will be Serbia’s first time entering the The World Cup Soccer as an independent nation. Whether the BELI ORLOVI follow the path of Yugoslavian success in the ’90s, or exit early like Serbia & Montenegro in ’06, remains to be seen. With 6’8″ Nikola Zigic on the pitch, Serbia can create a new history in South Africa.

During the Cold War, Serbian communists ruled Yugoslavia’s political life. Josip Broz Tito, a committed — but independent — communist, provided strong leadership for Yugoslavia’s federal system of government.

After splitting with the Soviet Union in 1948, Tito was free to accept aid from the Marshall Plan and to become a leader of the non-aligned movement. (For more information click here.)

Under Tito’s rule, Serbia was transformed from an agrarian to an industrial society. However, by the time Tito died in 1980, the economy was failing, and separatist and nationalist tensions were emerging.

In the late 1980s, Slobodan Milosevic gained power in Belgrade, exploiting Serbian nationalism as he achieved prominence.

Milosevic began campaigning for a stronger Yugoslav federal center, ordering the firing of large numbers of ethnic Albanian state employees, whose jobs were then taken by Serbs.

As a result, Kosovo Albanian leaders led a peaceful resistance movement in the early 1990s and established a parallel government funded mainly by the Albanian diaspora.

Between 1991 and 1992, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia all seceded from Yugoslavia.

Tito’s dream of a peaceful federation was in tatters. The post Cold War period has been marred by ethnic and nationalist conflict.

Ghana

Nickname: THE BLACK STARS
Appearance: 2nd
Record: W 2/ D 0/ L 2
Best Performance: Round of 16 in ’06
Group Stage Schedule:
June 13 vs. Serbia – Win
June 19 vs. Australia – Draw
June 23 vs. Germany

Ghana was the only African team to advance to the Round of 16 in ’06, its first ever World Cup. In 2010, THE BLACK STARS will be looking to surprise the world again. Led by midfield star Michael Essien, Ghana will be a force in Group D and one of the African teams to beat.

The Gold Coast, a former British colony in West Africa, became the independent state of Ghana on March 6, 1957 with Kwame Nkrumah as president.

A self-avowed socialist and anti-imperialist, Nkrumah aimed to modernize Ghana through the twin ideals of African socialism and Pan-Africanism. Unfortunately, however, as the first post-colonial state in West Africa, Ghana became a testing ground for the ideological battle between the Cold War superpowers for the hearts and minds of Africans.

While Ghana was still a colony, Nkrumah had attended the Bandung Conference of non-aligned nations. In 1958, after independence, he hosted the Conference of Independent African States in the Ghanian capital of Accra.

Later that year Nkrumah enjoyed a successful tour of Canada and the US, including a friendly meeting with the American president, Dwight Eisenhower.

Ike had already agreed to support the controversial Volta River Project that Nkrumah thought necessary for Ghana’s development.

Over time, however, Nkrumah increasingly turned leftward, seeking advice and aid from the Soviet Union. After Patrice Lumumba, the Congolese leader, was executed in 1960, Nkrumah began to believe that the west — and especially the US — wanted to impose a new kind of neocolonialism in Africa.

Kennedy reiterated American support for the Volta River Project in 1961, but he could not gain Nkrumah’s favor.

Instead of friendship with the US, Nkrumah chose to make a state visit to  the Soviet Union to seek closer economic ties.

Ultimately, Ghana became a one party state.

In February 1966, Nkrumah flew to Hanoi to negotiate an end to the Vietnam War. While he was out of his country, members of the Ghanian armed forces staged a coup. The new leadership was decidedly pro-western.

In the larger Cold War arena, Nkrumah’s rise and fall were evidence that the two superpowers were limited in what they could effect far from their borders.

WORLD CUP OF SOCCER GROUP C: THROUGH A COLD WAR LENS

Group C teams include England, Algeria, USA, and Slovenia. Stats and team info are courtesy of ESPN.

England

Nickname: THE THREE LIONS
Appearance: 13th
Record: W 25/ D 17/ L 13
Best Performance: Winners in ’66
Group Stage Schedule:
June 12 vs. USA- Draw
June 18 vs. Algeria –
June 23 vs. Slovenia at 9:30 AM ET

The country that invented the game hasn’t raised the trophy in 44 long years, but 2010 might be THE THREE LIONS’ best chance. In World Cup of Soccer South Africa, the English will look to Italian manager Fabio Capello and stars Frank Lampard, Wayne Rooney, and Steven Gerrard to help them finally get ’66 off their backs.

It’s interesting to look at England’s role in the early Cold War through the eyes of  Russia’s leader, Joseph Stalin. Marxist-Leninist ideology influenced his assumptions.

Stalin’s most important belief centered on his opinion that the capitalists — the United States and Great Britain — would never be able to cooperate with one another over the long haul. Their inherent greediness and their desire to place profits above politics would prevail. It was inevitable the the communists would succeed, so they just needed to wait it out and observe their adversaries self-destruction. The capitalists would come running to the Soviet Union for assistance instead of the other way around.

According to this line of thinking, Great Britain would sooner or later split with the US over economic rivalries. As late as 1952, Stalin insisted that “The inevitability of wars between capitalist countries remains in force.”

The capitalists would soon begin quarreling with one another, and the Europeans would embrace communism.

Clearly, Stalin’s thinking was out of line with British objectives. Gaddis says that Churchill’s goal was simple: survive at all costs, even if this means relinquishing leadership of the Anglo-American coalition to Washington, weakening the British Empire, and — even — collaborating with the Soviet Union.

Of course, the British would attempt to influence the Americans as much as possible, but they would not be at odds with them. This was evident quite early on when Churchill and Truman met in Missouri. Churchill’s speech there gave a name to the division between the Allies and the Soviets. He called it an Iron Curtain. The transcript of the Iron Curtain speech is at  Winston Churchill, “The Sinews of Peace”.  Go here for a recording of the same speech.

Algeria

Nickname: LES FENNECS (The Desert Foxes)
Appearance: 3rd
Record: W 2/ D 1/ L 3
Best Performance: Group Stage in ’82, ’86
Group Stage Schedule:
June 13 vs. Slovenia – Loss
June 18 vs. England – Draw
June 23 vs. USA at 9:30 AM ET

One of the biggest World Cup of Soccer upsets came in 1982 when Algeria beat West Germany in Spain. LES FENNECS qualified for the 1986 tournament also, but have remained silent since. After their 2009 upset over Egypt qualified them for South Africa, Goalkeeper Frouzi Chrouchi showed just how important 2010 is for Algeria and Africa.

Algeria was a colony of France from 1830 until it gained independence in 1962. In 1954, the National Liberation Front (FLN) launched a guerrilla campaign that became the Algerian War of Independence.

Algeria’s War of Independence is a good example of the wars of liberation that were prevalent during the Cold War era.

So far as the superpowers were concerned, decolonization was not a significant issue during the early Cold War years. The Soviet Union remained anti-imperialist but advancing revolution in the Third World was less important to Stalin than recovering from the World War II and attempting to spread his influence as much as possible in Europe.

The United States, for its part, was not about to defend European colonialism.

The situation could not last, however. It was not long before issues of nationalism and anticolonialism became central to superpower strategy.

In the case of Algeria, the French humiliation after the Suez Crisis complicated the war being fought in Algeria. France asserted that Algeria was not a colony but part of France itself. One of the French motives in attacking Egypt had been to stop Nasser’s support of the Algerian independence movement, the FLN. The plan backfired though.

After Suez, Nasser’s support for the FLN intensified, and Soviet propaganda in the Middle East began to focus on Algeria as a symbol of Western imperialism.

The war became increasingly controversial in France after the newspaper Le Monde published a secret report that acknowledged the systematic use of torture as a central feature of the French campaign.

The Americans were in a bind. They believed that colonialism could only discredit the West, and weaken the European allies who still had colonies. But the US  couldn’t detach itself from its British, French, Dutch, and Portuguese allies. Restoring security and prosperity in postwar Europe was too important.

The risk that Third World nationalists would associate the Americans with imperialism was high. In fact, Khruschev was counting on this.

Importantly, it was widely acknowledged that the choices of newly independent states like Algeria could tip the balance of power in the Cold War.

Although Algeria attended the Bandung Conference of non-aligned nations, the country was socialist, receiving most of its military supplies from the Soviet Union.

Its primary military supplier has been the former Soviet Union, which has sold various types of sophisticated equipment under military trade agreements, and the People’s Republic of China. Algeria has attempted, in recent years, to diversify its sources of military material.

United States of America (USA)

Nickname: THE YANKS
Appearance: 9th
Record: W 6/ D 3/ L 16
Best Performance: Third place in ’30
Group Stage Schedule:
June 12 vs. England – Draw
June 18 vs. Slovenia – Draw
June 23 vs. Algeria at 9:30 AM ET

The USA enters South Africa World Cup of Soccer with momentum. The team won its region in qualifying, toppled #1 ranked  Spain and placed 2nd at the 2009 FICA Confederations Cup. In the teams 6th straight appearance, Landon Donovan will the the USA into battle in Group C against historic rival England in what could be the biggest game in US soccer history.

For the last half of the twentieth century, the US was preoccupied with Communism and the Red Scare. In the context of the American – Soviet rivalry, postwar rhetoric about Godless Commies infused American popular culture.

For decades, a propaganda war intruded into Americans’ everyday lives.  People truly believed that REDS were around every corner and under every bed.

America’s fear of communism was not new.

Years before World War II and the US  engaged alliance with the USSR, Americans were conditioned by politicians, businessmen, clergy, and the press to fear Communists.

A brief history:

After the Russian Revolution, communism was the dread of America’s industrial leaders who feared labor unrest. In turn, they convinced average Americans that their lives were threatened by Communists who were among the immigrants entering the United States.

Years before the American Communist Party was founded, the word “communism” was synonymous with un-Americanism.

During the Great Depression, communism gained a foothold among American working and intellectual classes who opposed the policies of President Hoover that had plunged the nation into economic disaster.

Throughout Franklin Roosevelt’s  presidency, FDR’s congressional opponents spent much of their time proposing bills that would limit immigration, free speech, and free assembly for suspected Communists and deport foreign-born Communists.

Congress often flirted with the idea of legally prohibiting the Communist Party.

The war against Germany and the wartime alliance with the Soviet Union temporarily changed the dominant stereotypes. But, by 1948, anti-Communist militancy was sweeping the country.

During the Cold War, communism was blamed for a multitude of sins, escalating America’s  fears. The Soviet menace was clearly visible in actions like the blockade of Berlin.

Fear of spies, threats of a Communist takeover, and paranoia about nuclear war were exploited as reality as well as fantasy, influencing generations for years to come.

The  most forceful period of Red-Baiting in the US reached its height in the mid- to late ’50s. It remained dominant until replaced by fears of the “Evil Empire.”

Soon after President Reagan’s Evil Empire Speech, the Cold War began to wind down, the Red Scare dissipated, and Moscow’s first McDonald’s opened.

Slovenia

Nickname: THE ZMAJCEKI (Dragons)
Appearance: 2nd
Record: W 0/ D 0/ L 3
Best Performance: Group Stage in ’02
Group Stage Schedule:
June 13 vs. Algeria – Draw
June 18 vs. USA – Draw
June 23 vs. England – at 9:30 AM ET

Slovenia caught everyone by surprise by slaying the giant bear of Russia to Qualify for its second ever World Cup of Soccer. Led by Striker Milivoje Novakovic, Slovenis is the smallest country in the 2010 World Cup (population:2 million). Still, it is certainly one to keep an eye on — especially for fellow Group C teams USA, England, and Algeria.

At the end of World War II, Slovenia became part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, a socialist state established under the leadership of  the Communist, Josip Tito.

Yugoslavia was one of the Soviet Union’s most reliable allies at the end of World War II, but its leader, Josip Broz Tito, had come to power on his own. He and his partisans had driven out the Nazis, and, unlike other Eastern European leaders, he did not depend on Stalin’s support to stay in power. By the end of 1948, he had openly broken with Moscow.

After the Tito-Soviet split, Tito began to pioneer the process of non-alignment. He remained a dedicated communist, but he was determined not to sacrifice his country’s sovereignty for ideological solidarity.

His idea was to commit to neither side in the Cold War, but to leave open the possibility of taking sides with either. That way, if pressure from one superpower became too great, the smaller power could defend itself by threatening to align itself with the other superpower.

He put this in practice when the Americans quickly offered him economic assistance after his break with Stalin.  Although Tito accepted American financial assistance, he thought that it would not do for him to become too dependent on the US.

Tito thought that it would be smarter to leave the way open for reconciliation with the Soviet Union, and he did so to his benefit. When Stalin died, Khruschev traveled to Belgrade to apologize for Stalin’s behavior.

Tito treated him with respect but, at the same time, considered himself an equal. From that time on, Khruschev felt obliged to consult Tito on big decisions. For example, Tito gave his approval to the Soviet decision to suppress the 1956 Hungarian uprising.

Tito’s interest in non-alignment went well beyond Eastern Europe, to Asia and beyond. Along with Nehru (India) and Zhou (China), he convened the first conference of “non-aligned” nations at Bandung in Indonesia in April 1955. Its purpose was to expand autonomy by encouraging neutrality in the Cold War.

So far as Slovenia was concerned, from the late 1950s onward, dissident circles started to be formed, mostly around short-lived independent journals.

In the 1980s, the country experienced a rise of cultural pluralism. Numerous grassroots political, artistic, and intellectual movements emerged. By the mid 1980s, a reformist faction took control of the Slovenian Communist Party and began a gradual move toward market socialism and controlled political pluralism.

In April 1990, the first free and democratic elections were held, and the Democratic Opposition of Slovenia defeated the former Communist party.After 1990, a stable democratic system evolved, with economic liberalization and gradual growth of prosperity.

Slovenia joined NATO on 29 March 2004 and the European Union on 1 May 2004.